According to Frans de Waal, both humans and non-human primates possess innate instincts, emotions, and predispositions that facilitate social living. Social activities, such as forming relationships, participating in shared goals, and displaying empathy towards others, are not externally imposed obligations; rather, they are inherent and desirable aspects of social life. Against the utilitarian model of self-interest and Machiavellian intelligence, de Waal suggests a kind of gestalt reversal: far from being a mere means to achieve individual goals, social interactions are a valuable end in itself.