Childhood adversities, including neglect, abuse, and other indicators of family dysfunction, are associated in adulthood with risk factors for poor cognitive and mental health. However, the extent to which these experiences are associated with adulthood cognition-related quality of life and risk for dementia is unknown.
To determine the association of 10 adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) with neuropsychiatric outcomes among former National Football League (NFL) players.
This cross-sectional analysis used data from the Football Player's Health Study at Harvard University, an ongoing longitudinal cohort study from January 30, 2015, to November 19, 2021, of former NFL players.
Ten ACEs were assessed using the Adverse Childhood Experiences Questionnaire.
Dementia symptoms were assessed using the AD8: The Washington University Dementia Screening Test; cognition-related quality of life was assessed with the short form of the Quality of Life in Neurological Disorders; depression was assessed with the Patient Health Questionnaire-9; anxiety was assessed with the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7; and pain intensity and pain interference in daily life were assessed with the Brief Pain Inventory. Risk ratios (RRs) assessing the association between ACEs and neuropsychiatric outcomes were estimated using generalized estimating equations, adjusted for age, race, and childhood socioeconomic status, and further adjusted for playing position, concussions incurred during football play, and number of seasons played in the NFL.
A total of 1755 men (mean [SD] age, 57.2 [13.5] years) who were former professional football players were included in the analysis. Five hundred twenty players (29.6%) identified as Black, 1160 (66.1%) identified as White, and 75 (4.3%) identified as other race or ethnicity. Players with 4 or more ACEs were at 48% greater risk of a positive screen for dementia (RR, 1.48 [95% CI, 1.22-1.79]), and at significantly greater risk of every other neuropsychiatric outcome except anxiety (RR range, 1.62 [95% CI, 1.09-2.39] to 1.74 [95% CI, 1.27-2.40]) compared with players with no ACEs. Further adjustment for concussions incurred during playing years attenuated these associations, although some were still significant (adjusted RR range, 1.32 [95% CI, 1.10-1.58] to 1.56 [95% CI, 1.15-2.11]). ACEs were also associated with concussion symptoms; players with 4 or more ACEs had a 60% increased risk of being in the top quartile of concussion symptoms (RR, 1.60; 95% CI, 1.12-2.28) compared with players with no ACEs.
These findings suggest that ACEs may be associated with dementia symptoms among former NFL players. Moreover, ACEs should be investigated among professional football players and other populations as a prospective indicator of persons at high risk of concussion. These findings further suggest that treatment of psychological trauma in addition to treatment of physical injury may improve neuropsychiatric health in former NFL players.